What does jihad really mean?

In a Nutshell: The Arabic word jihad (جهاد) means "striving" or "exertion" and refers, in its broadest Quranic sense, to the effort a person makes to live in accordance with the will of Allah (swt). Contrary to its common portrayal in Western media as synonymous with "holy war," jihad encompasses a wide spectrum of meaning in Islamic theology - from the daily struggle against one's own ego and desires (often called the "greater jihad") through to the effort to build a just society, speak truth in the face of oppression, and, in narrowly defined circumstances, engage in legitimate armed defence. The Quran uses the word and its derivatives approximately 41 times, and in the large majority of instances the context is non-military. This article examines the textual, scholarly, and historical evidence for the full meaning of jihad, addresses the most common misconceptions, and explains why the reduction of this rich concept to a single violent meaning is both linguistically inaccurate and theologically misleading. Introduction Few words in the Arabic language have been more thoroughly misunderstood in global public discourse than jihad. For many non-Muslims the word evokes images of warfare and violence. This association has been reinforced by decades of media coverage that uses "jihad" and "jihadist" as shorthand for armed militancy, and by the rhetoric of groups like ISIS and al-Qaeda who deliberately co-opt the term to lend religious legitimacy to acts of violence that mainstream Islamic scholarship overwhelmingly condemns. Yet the actual meaning of jihad in Arabic, in the Quran, and in fourteen centuries of Islamic scholarly tradition is far richer, more nuanced and more ethically complex than this reduction suggests. Understanding what jihad really means is essential not only for non-Muslims seeking accurate information about Islam, but also for Muslims themselves - particularly younger Muslims growing up in environments where the word has become so politically charged that its original spiritual and ethical dimensions are often obscured. This article returns to the primary sources - the Quran, the hadith, the lived example of the companions (sahaba), and the accumulated wisdom of classical and contemporary scholars - to provide a comprehensive, evidence-based account of what jihad means in Islam. Evidences Quranic Verses "And strive (jahidu) in the cause of Allah with the striving (jihad) that is due to Him." (Quran 22:78) "And whoever strives (jahada), strives only for himself. Indeed, Allah is free from need of the worlds." (Quran 29:6) "And We have enjoined upon man goodness to parents. But if they strive (jahadaka) to make you associate with Me that of which you have no knowledge, do not obey them." (Quran 29:8) "So do not obey the disbelievers, and strive against them (jahidhum) with it [the Quran] - a great striving (jihadan kabira)." (Quran 25:52) "Permission [to fight] has been given to those who are being fought, because they were wronged. And indeed, Allah is competent to give them victory." (Quran 22:39) "Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress. Indeed, Allah does not like transgressors." (Quran 2:190) Hadiths The Prophet (pbuh) said: "The best jihad is the word of justice in front of an oppressive ruler." (Abu Dawud, Tirmidhi) The Prophet (pbuh) said: "The mujahid is one who strives against his own self for the sake of Allah." (Tirmidhi) The Prophet (pbuh) said, on returning from a military expedition: "We have returned from the lesser jihad to the greater jihad." When asked what the greater jihad was, he replied: "The jihad against the self." (Reported by al-Bayhaqi; note: some scholars consider this hadith weak in chain but accepted in meaning by many classical authorities) The Prophet (pbuh) said: "Shall I not tell you of the best of your deeds, the most pleasing to your Sovereign, the most elevating in your ranks, better for you than spending gold and silver, and better for you than meeting your enemy and striking their necks and they striking yours?" They said, "Yes, O Messenger of Allah." He said, "Remembrance of Allah (dhikr)." (Tirmidhi, Ibn Majah) Companions' Opinions Ali ibn Abi Talib (ra) described jihad as encompassing four dimensions: jihad of the heart (against evil inclinations), jihad of the tongue (speaking truth), jihad of the hand (acting justly), and jihad of the sword (legitimate defence) - with the first being the most constant and the last being the most constrained. Aisha (ra) asked the Prophet (pbuh): "O Messenger of Allah, we see jihad as the best of deeds. Should we not then engage in it?" He replied: "The best jihad [for you] is a well-performed Hajj." (Sahih al-Bukhari) This narration demonstrates that the Prophet (pbuh) himself used the term jihad for non-military endeavours. Traditional Scholars' Quotes Ibn Taymiyyah (13th–14th century), often selectively quoted by extremists, in fact wrote: "The jihad of explanation and persuasion takes precedence over the jihad of fighting." He insisted that armed conflict was a last resort subject to strict conditions. Al-Ghazali (11th–12th century) devoted extensive discussion to the "jihad of the nafs" (self) in Ihya Ulum al-Din, arguing that the internal struggle against arrogance, greed, anger, and spiritual complacency was the foundational jihad upon which all other forms depended. Ibn al-Qayyim (14th century) categorised jihad into thirteen distinct types in Zad al-Ma'ad, of which only one involved armed combat. The remaining twelve included jihad against the self, against Satan, against corruption, through knowledge, through patience, through da'wah (invitation to Islam), and through just governance. Imam al-Nawawi (13th century) defined jihad in his commentary on Sahih Muslim as "exerting one's utmost effort" and noted that this applied to every dimension of a Muslim's life, from worship to social responsibility. Analysis: What Does Jihad Really Mean? The textual evidence above reveals several critical insights that are routinely missed in public discussions of jihad. The word itself is about effort, not violence. The Arabic root j-h-d (ج-ه-د) denotes exertion, striving, and effort. The word jihad, at its linguistic root, carries no inherent connotation of violence. This is not a contested point among Arabic linguists - it is a simple fact of the language. When the Quran instructs believers to strive with the Quran itself (25:52), the striving referred to is intellectual and spiritual, not military. When a parent is described as striving (jahadaka) to lead their child away from faith (29:8), the word clearly refers to persuasion, not armed conflict. The claim that jihad "means holy war" is a mistranslation that has no basis in Arabic lexicography. The Arabic term for fighting is qital (قتال), which is a distinct word with a distinct root, and the Quran uses it separately when referring specifically to armed combat. The Quranic context is overwhelmingly non-military. Of the approximately 41 occurrences of the root j-h-d in the Quran, the large majority refer to non-violent striving - spiritual effort, intellectual struggle, ethical perseverance, or the effort of following a righteous path against social or personal obstacles. The verses that address armed combat (such as 22:39 and 2:190) do so with explicit conditions and constraints: fighting is permitted only in self-defence ("those who are being fought, because they were wronged"), and even then it is bounded by the prohibition against transgression ("do not transgress"). These verses do not describe an open-ended licence for aggression; they describe a constrained permission for defensive action, surrounded by ethical limits. The scholarly tradition is rich and multidimensional. Ibn al-Qayyim's enumeration of thirteen types of jihad is particularly illuminating. Only one of the thirteen involves armed combat, and it is subject to the most stringent conditions - legitimate authority, proportionality, protection of non-combatants, absence of alternative means, and the prohibition against targeting civilians, religious buildings, crops, or animals. The remaining twelve types - jihad of the self, of knowledge, of patience, of da'wah, of justice - form the overwhelming majority of what Islamic scholars have understood the concept to encompass. This is not a modern revisionist interpretation. It is the mainstream scholarly tradition stretching back over a millennium. The "greater jihad" tradition, even if debated in chain, is accepted in meaning. The hadith describing the return from military expedition as a return "from the lesser jihad to the greater jihad" is classified by some hadith scholars as weak in its chain of transmission. However, its meaning - that the internal struggle against one's own ego, desires, and moral failings is more difficult and more important than external combat - is affirmed by numerous other sound hadiths and by the overwhelming consensus of classical scholars. Al-Ghazali, Ibn al-Qayyim, and al-Nawawi all affirm this principle through independently sourced evidence. Extremist appropriation is a distortion, not an interpretation. When groups like ISIS use the word jihad to describe acts of terrorism, they are not drawing on the Islamic scholarly tradition - they are deliberately distorting it. The classical conditions for legitimate armed jihad (which include the requirement for a recognised state authority to declare it, the prohibition against targeting civilians, and the requirement for exhaustion of all peaceful alternatives) are systematically violated by such groups. Mainstream Islamic scholarship, across all four Sunni schools of law and across Shia jurisprudence, has consistently condemned these acts. The Marrakesh Declaration (2016), signed by over 250 Muslim scholars, religious leaders, and heads of state from over 120 countries, explicitly reaffirmed the principles of justice, mercy, and the protection of religious minorities that the concept of jihad, properly understood, is meant to serve. 5 Misconceptions about Jihad Jihad means "holy war." The term "holy war" (bellum sacrum) is a Christian theological concept from the Crusading era. It has no Arabic equivalent and is not found anywhere in the Quran or hadith literature. Jihad means "striving" or "exertion," and its primary meaning in Islamic theology is spiritual and ethical, not military. Islam commands Muslims to wage jihad against all non-Muslims. The Quran explicitly states "there is no compulsion in religion" (2:256) and restricts the use of force to self-defence against aggression (22:39, 2:190). The notion of a perpetual offensive war against non-believers is contradicted by the Prophet's (pbuh) treaties, alliances, and peaceful coexistence with non-Muslim communities throughout his life. The "inner struggle" interpretation is a modern apologetic invention. As documented above, al-Ghazali (11th century), Ibn al-Qayyim (14th century), and al-Nawawi (13th century) all wrote extensively about the jihad of the self as the primary and most important form of jihad. This interpretation is centuries older than the modern media narrative that reduced jihad to violence. All historical Muslim conquests were motivated by jihad. While some conquests were framed in religious terms, the historical reality is far more complex. Many expansions were driven by geopolitical, economic, and strategic factors - as with any empire. Classical scholars themselves debated the legitimacy of various military campaigns, demonstrating that "jihad" was never a blanket justification for territorial expansion. Jihad has no rules or ethical limits. Islamic law of armed conflict (siyar) imposes extensive restrictions: non-combatants must not be harmed, religious buildings must not be destroyed, crops and livestock must not be targeted, prisoners must be treated humanely, and peace must be accepted when offered. These rules were codified in Islamic law centuries before the Geneva Conventions. 5 Objections Addressed If jihad is primarily about inner struggle, why does the Quran also discuss fighting? Because the Quran addresses the full spectrum of human experience, including situations where communities face existential aggression. The permission to fight in self-defence (22:39) is a concession to the reality that some circumstances require physical resistance to injustice. This does not make armed combat the primary or defining meaning of jihad - it makes it one constrained application among many. Isn't the "greater jihad" hadith weak, which undermines the whole inner-struggle argument? Even if the specific hadith is debated in its chain of transmission, the principle it expresses is supported by numerous sound hadiths (such as the Prophet's statement that "the mujahid is one who strives against his own self," reported in Tirmidhi) and by the unanimous consensus of classical scholars from all major schools. The argument for inner jihad does not rest on a single hadith. How do you explain extremist groups who cite jihad to justify violence? Extremist groups deliberately strip Quranic verses of their context and ignore the extensive conditions that classical scholarship places on armed jihad. This is a misuse of the concept, condemned by the overwhelming majority of Muslim scholars worldwide. The Amman Message (2004), signed by scholars from all eight recognised schools of Islamic jurisprudence, explicitly rejected such distortions. If jihad is about self-improvement, why is it so strongly associated with violence in the Muslim world itself? This association is partly a product of colonial and post-colonial history, in which resistance movements (some legitimate, some not) adopted religious language for political purposes. It is also a product of selective amplification - violent uses of the word receive disproportionate media coverage, while the millions of Muslims who understand jihad as a daily spiritual practice receive none. Doesn't the concept of jihad, even in its defensive form, make Islam inherently more militant than other religions? Every major civilisation, including Christian, Jewish, Hindu, and secular ones, has a tradition of justified self-defence. The Christian tradition of "just war" (originating with Augustine and Aquinas) is conceptually parallel to Islamic rules of siyar. The existence of a framework for legitimate defence does not make a tradition "inherently militant" - it makes it honest about the conditions under which force may reluctantly be used. FAQs: What Does Jihad Really Mean? How many types of jihad are there in Islamic scholarship? Ibn al-Qayyim enumerated thirteen types, of which only one involves armed combat. The others include jihad of the self, of knowledge, of patience, of da'wah (invitation), of just governance, and of truthful speech. Most classical scholars broadly agree with this categorisation. Is jihad one of the pillars of Islam? No. The five pillars of Islam are the shahada (declaration of faith), salah (prayer), zakat (charitable giving), sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). Jihad is not among them, further demonstrating that armed combat is not a central obligation of the faith. What is the difference between jihad and qital? Jihad means striving or exertion and encompasses spiritual, intellectual, ethical, and (in constrained circumstances) physical effort. Qital specifically means fighting or armed combat. The Quran uses qital, not jihad, when referring specifically to military engagement, though the two are sometimes related in context. Did the Prophet (pbuh) engage in armed jihad? Yes. The Prophet (pbuh) participated in defensive battles, most notably the battles of Badr, Uhud, and the Trench, all of which were fought in defence of the Muslim community against aggression from the Quraysh and their allies. He also negotiated peace treaties (most famously the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah) and prioritised non-violent resolution wherever possible. How should Muslims explain jihad to non-Muslims? Honestly and without defensiveness. Acknowledge that the word has been misrepresented in public discourse, explain its linguistic meaning ("striving"), provide the full range of its scholarly interpretations, and be candid about the conditions under which Islam permits armed defence - while emphasising that these conditions are far more restrictive than most people realise. Conclusion The word jihad, at its linguistic root and in its overwhelming Quranic and scholarly usage, means striving - the effort a human being makes to live justly, to resist their own worst impulses, to pursue knowledge, to speak truth, to build a just society and to defend the vulnerable when all other means are exhausted. The reduction of this rich, multidimensional concept to a single violent meaning is a failure of both translation and understanding. It serves neither non-Muslims who genuinely wish to learn about Islam, nor Muslims who deserve to see their tradition represented with accuracy and nuance. Classical Islamic scholars - writing centuries before the modern political weaponisation of the term - understood jihad as primarily an internal, ethical and spiritual endeavour. The armed dimension, while present in the tradition, is the most constrained and conditional form, surrounded by strict ethical limits that bear comparison with (and in many respects predate) the Western tradition of just war theory. For Muslims today, reclaiming the full meaning of jihad is not merely an exercise in public relations. It is an act of fidelity to the tradition itself - a tradition that has always understood the most difficult and most rewarding struggle as the one that takes place within the human heart. References: Sahih al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim, Abu Dawud, Tirmidhi, al-Bayhaqi, Ibn Majah. Quran translations referenced from Sahih International. Al-Ghazali, "Ihya Ulum al-Din." Ibn al-Qayyim, "Zad al-Ma'ad" and "Madarij al-Salikin." Al-Nawawi, "Sharh Sahih Muslim." The Amman Message (2004). The Marrakesh Declaration (2016).