What were the major contributions of Islamic civilisation to science?

In a Nutshell: Between the 8th and 14th centuries, scholars working within Islamic civilisation made foundational contributions to mathematics, astronomy, medicine, optics, chemistry, geography and engineering that shaped the trajectory of global science. These contributions were not incidental to Islam but were actively encouraged by Quranic injunctions to observe, reflect and seek knowledge. Figures such as al-Khwarizmi (the father of algebra), Ibn al-Haytham (the pioneer of the modern scientific method), Ibn Sina (whose medical encyclopaedia was used in European universities for over five centuries) and al-Zahrawi (the father of modern surgery) produced work that was centuries ahead of its time. The Islamic scholarly tradition preserved, translated and critically advanced the scientific knowledge of Greece, Persia, India and China, creating the intellectual foundations upon which the European Renaissance and the modern scientific revolution were built. This article examines these contributions through Islamic primary sources, the testimony of the scholars themselves and the assessments of both Muslim and non-Muslim historians. Introduction When the history of science is told in Western classrooms, the narrative typically leaps from ancient Greece to the European Renaissance, as though a millennium of human inquiry simply did not occur. This gap - sometimes called "the lost centuries" - was, in reality, one of the most intellectually productive periods in human history, and it was centred in the Islamic world. From roughly the 8th to the 14th centuries CE, a vast civilisation stretching from Spain to Central Asia produced an extraordinary flourishing of scientific knowledge. Scholars working in Arabic (Muslims, but also Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians living under Islamic governance) made advances in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, optics, chemistry, pharmacology, geography, cartography, engineering and agricultural science that were without parallel anywhere in the world at that time. These scholars did not merely preserve earlier Greek and Indian knowledge (though this preservation was itself of incalculable value); they subjected it to rigorous testing, corrected its errors and extended it in directions the original authors had never imagined. This article examines the major scientific contributions of Islamic civilisation, grounding the discussion in the Quranic and Prophetic impetus for seeking knowledge, presenting the key figures and their achievements, and addressing the misconceptions and objections that commonly arise around this subject. Evidences Quranic Verses "Read! In the name of your Lord who created. Created man from a clinging substance. Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous, Who taught by the pen, taught man that which he knew not." (Quran 96:1–5) These are the first verses revealed to the Prophet (pbuh), and it is deeply significant that the very first divine command in Islam is an injunction to read, learn and seek knowledge. "Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alternation of the night and the day, are signs for those of understanding." (Quran 3:190) "Do they not look at the camels, how they are created? And at the sky, how it is raised? And at the mountains, how they are firmly set? And at the earth, how it is spread out?" (Quran 88:17–20) "Say: Are those who know equal to those who do not know?" (Quran 39:9) "And He has subjected to you whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on the earth - all from Him. Indeed in that are signs for a people who give thought." (Quran 45:13) These verses - and dozens like them - establish a Quranic worldview in which the natural world is a book of signs to be read, observed and understood. The study of nature is not merely permitted in Islam; it is a form of worship, a means of drawing closer to the Creator through understanding His creation. Hadiths The Prophet (pbuh) said: "Seeking knowledge is an obligation upon every Muslim." (Ibn Majah) The Prophet (pbuh) said: "Whoever follows a path in pursuit of knowledge, Allah will make easy for him a path to Paradise." (Sahih Muslim) The Prophet (pbuh) said: "The ink of the scholar is more sacred than the blood of the martyr." (Widely attributed; cited by al-Ghazali in Ihya Ulum al-Din) The Prophet (pbuh) said: "Wisdom is the lost property of the believer; wherever he finds it, he has the most right to it." (al-Tirmidhi) This last hadith is particularly important for understanding why Muslim scholars so eagerly translated, studied and built upon Greek, Persian and Indian scientific works - they viewed useful knowledge, regardless of its origin, as belonging rightfully to those who would put it to beneficial use. Companions' Opinions Ali ibn Abi Talib (ra) said: "Knowledge is better than wealth. Knowledge guards you, while you guard wealth. Knowledge increases with spending, while wealth decreases. Knowledge is a ruler, while wealth is ruled over." This statement reflects the elevated status that the earliest Muslim community accorded to the pursuit of learning. Umar ibn al-Khattab (ra), during his caliphate, established a system of state-funded education and administration that created the institutional infrastructure within which later scientific inquiry could flourish. Traditional Scholars' Quotes Al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE) wrote in Ihya Ulum al-Din: "Knowledge of medicine, mathematics, and the workings of the natural world are communal obligations (fard kifaya) upon the Muslim community." By classifying scientific knowledge as a communal religious obligation, al-Ghazali placed science firmly within the framework of Islamic duty, not outside it. Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126–1198 CE) wrote in Fasl al-Maqal: "If the activity of philosophy is nothing more than the study of existing beings and reflection on them as indications of the Artisan... then it is clear that what this name signifies is either obligatory or recommended by the Law." Ibn Rushd argued that the study of the natural world through reason was not merely compatible with Islam but mandated by it. Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406 CE), in the Muqaddimah, documented the systematic nature of Islamic scientific achievement and its relationship to the broader civilisational structures of the Muslim world, noting that scientific productivity was directly linked to the strength of educational institutions, state patronage and urban development. Analysis: So what were the Major Scientific Contributions? Mathematics The most transformative mathematical contribution was the development of algebra (al-jabr) by Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (c. 780–850 CE). His work "Kitab al-Jabr wa al-Muqabala" (The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing) was the first systematic treatment of algebra as an independent discipline. The word "algebra" derives directly from the Arabic title, and the word "algorithm" derives from the Latinisation of al-Khwarizmi's own name. His work introduced the use of Hindu-Arabic numerals (including the concept of zero) to the Islamic world, which subsequently transmitted them to Europe, replacing the cumbersome Roman numeral system and enabling the development of modern mathematics, commerce and engineering. Other significant mathematical contributions include: al-Kashi's (d. 1429 CE) calculation of pi to sixteen decimal places - a record that stood for nearly two centuries; Omar Khayyam's (1048–1131 CE) geometric solutions to cubic equations; and Thabit ibn Qurra's (836–901 CE) work on number theory and the geometry of conic sections. Optics and the Scientific Method Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen, 965–1040 CE) is regarded by many historians of science as the father of the modern scientific method. His seven-volume "Kitab al-Manazir" (Book of Optics) overturned the ancient Greek theory that vision worked by rays emitted from the eye, demonstrating through controlled experiments that vision results from light entering the eye from external objects. This was not merely a correction of Greek theory; it was a fundamental reorientation of how scientific knowledge should be produced - through systematic observation, hypothesis, experimentation and verification rather than through philosophical speculation alone. Historian David Lindberg described Ibn al-Haytham's work as representing a decisive shift in the history of science from a largely theoretical discipline to an empirical one. Medicine Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980–1037 CE) authored "al-Qanun fi al-Tibb" (The Canon of Medicine), a comprehensive medical encyclopaedia that systematised Greek, Persian and Indian medical knowledge and added Ibn Sina's own clinical observations and theoretical innovations. The Canon was translated into Latin in the 12th century and remained a standard textbook at European medical schools - including Montpellier, Leuven and Padua - until the late 17th century, a period of use spanning over five hundred years. It introduced the concept of contagion, described the symptoms and transmission of numerous diseases, and established principles of clinical trials and evidence-based treatment. Al-Zahrawi (Albucasis, 936–1013 CE), working in Cordoba, authored "Kitab al-Tasrif" (The Method of Medicine), a thirty-volume medical encyclopaedia whose surgical section described over two hundred instruments - many of which he designed himself - and established foundational surgical techniques that are still recognisable in modern practice. He is widely regarded as the father of modern surgery. Al-Razi (Rhazes, 854–925 CE) distinguished measles from smallpox for the first time in medical history and authored "al-Hawi" (The Comprehensive Book), one of the largest medical encyclopaedias ever compiled in the pre-modern world. Astronomy Muslim astronomers refined and corrected the Ptolemaic model of the cosmos, building sophisticated observatories and producing star catalogues, astronomical tables and instruments of unprecedented precision. Al-Battani (858–929 CE) calculated the length of the solar year to within two minutes of the modern value and improved upon Ptolemy's calculation of the precession of the equinoxes. The astrolabe, though originating in Greece, was perfected and widely deployed by Muslim astronomers and navigators. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274 CE) developed mathematical models that anticipated aspects of Copernican heliocentrism - the so-called "Tusi couple" resolved a key problem in Ptolemaic astronomy and later appeared in nearly identical form in Copernicus's work, leading historians to investigate direct lines of transmission. Chemistry Jabir ibn Hayyan (c. 721–815 CE), known in the Latin world as Geber, is considered the father of chemistry (which derives from the Arabic "al-kimiya"). He developed systematic methods of distillation, crystallisation, evaporation and filtration, and he introduced the experimental method to chemistry at a time when the field was still entangled with mystical alchemy. His classification of substances and his insistence on repeatable experimental procedures laid the groundwork for modern chemistry as a rigorous science. Geography and Engineering Al-Idrisi (1100–1165 CE) produced the most accurate world map of the pre-modern era, the Tabula Rogeriana, commissioned by the Norman King Roger II of Sicily. Muslim engineers developed sophisticated irrigation systems, water clocks, and architectural innovations including the pointed arch - which was later adopted in European Gothic architecture. Al-Jazari (1136–1206 CE) authored "The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices," describing over fifty mechanical devices including programmable automata, combination locks and water-raising machines that represent some of the earliest examples of engineering design. Misconceptions about Islamic Contributions to Science Muslim scholars merely preserved Greek knowledge without adding anything original. This is perhaps the most persistent misconception. While preservation and translation were indeed vital achievements, Muslim scholars did far more than copy. Al-Khwarizmi invented algebra as a new discipline. Ibn al-Haytham overturned Greek optical theory through original experimentation. Ibn Sina extended and corrected Galen's medical system with his own clinical observations. The relationship between Muslim scholars and their Greek predecessors was one of critical engagement and advancement, not passive transmission. Islamic science declined because Islam is inherently anti-scientific. The decline of scientific productivity in parts of the Muslim world from the 14th century onwards was driven by political fragmentation, the Mongol invasions (which destroyed Baghdad's House of Wisdom in 1258), colonial disruption and economic shifts - not by any inherent conflict between Islam and science. As the Quranic verses and scholarly statements cited above demonstrate, the pursuit of scientific knowledge is deeply embedded in Islamic theology. All the major Muslim scientists were really secular thinkers who happened to live in Muslim lands. The evidence does not support this. Ibn al-Haytham explicitly framed his scientific work as a means of understanding divine creation. Al-Biruni, Ibn Sina and al-Khwarizmi were practising Muslims who saw no contradiction between their faith and their scientific inquiry. The institutional infrastructure that supported their work - including mosques, madrasas and waqf-funded libraries - was itself a product of Islamic civilisation. Islamic contributions to science are exaggerated by Muslim apologists. The significance of these contributions is attested not only by Muslim historians but by leading non-Muslim scholars of the history of science, including George Sarton, David Lindberg, Jim al-Khalili, and the editors of the Cambridge History of Science. The evidence is overwhelming and widely recognised in mainstream academic historiography. Only Arabs contributed to Islamic science. Islamic civilisation's scientific achievements were produced by a remarkably diverse community. Al-Khwarizmi was Persian. Ibn Sina was from Central Asia (modern Uzbekistan). Al-Idrisi was born in Morocco. Al-Zahrawi worked in Andalusia (modern Spain). Thabit ibn Qurra was a Sabian from Harran (modern Turkey). The common thread was not ethnicity but a shared civilisational framework in which Arabic served as the language of scholarship. Objections Addressed If Islamic civilisation was so scientifically advanced, why did the Muslim world fall behind Europe? This is a legitimate historical question. The decline was multi-causal: the Mongol destruction of Baghdad in 1258, political fragmentation of the Abbasid caliphate, the loss of Andalusia, European colonial expansion, and shifting trade routes all played roles. It is also worth noting that the European ascendancy was itself built substantially on the foundations that Islamic civilisation had laid - the transmission of algebra, optics, medicine and astronomical knowledge to Europe was a direct precondition for the scientific revolution. Were these contributions really "Islamic," or were they simply the product of a multicultural empire? Both. Islamic civilisation created the institutional, theological and linguistic conditions that made this scientific flourishing possible - the Quranic emphasis on knowledge, the establishment of madrasas and libraries, the Arabic language as a shared scholarly medium, and the state patronage of learning. Non-Muslim scholars (notably the Nestorian Christian translators of the Bayt al-Hikma) made vital contributions within this framework, which itself testifies to the pluralism of Islamic civilisation. Doesn't crediting Islam with these achievements downplay the contributions of Greece, Persia and India? Not at all. Muslim scholars themselves were transparent about their intellectual debts. Al-Khwarizmi drew on Indian mathematics. Ibn Sina built upon Galen and Hippocrates. Ibn Rushd wrote commentaries on Aristotle. The point is not that Muslim scholars invented everything from nothing, but that they critically engaged with, corrected, synthesised and extended the knowledge of multiple civilisations - and then transmitted the combined result to Europe. This intermediary and generative role is itself an achievement of the first order. How do we know these claims are not retrospective exaggeration? The primary sources survive. Al-Khwarizmi's texts exist and can be read. Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics has been translated and studied by modern scholars. The Canon of Medicine's influence on European universities is documented in university curricula from the 12th to the 17th centuries. These are not matters of opinion; they are matters of historical record. If the Quran really encourages science, why do some Muslim-majority countries today have low scientific output? Contemporary scientific output is determined by investment in education, research infrastructure, political stability and economic development - not by theology alone. Countries with high investment in these areas, such as Turkey, Malaysia and the UAE, are producing increasing scientific output. The Quranic imperative to seek knowledge provides the theological foundation; whether it is acted upon depends on political and economic conditions. FAQs: What Were the Major Contributions of Islamic Civilisation to Science? What was the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma)? The House of Wisdom was a major intellectual centre in Baghdad, established during the Abbasid caliphate (particularly under Caliph al-Ma'mun, r. 813–833 CE). It served as a library, translation centre and academy where scholars of multiple faiths translated Greek, Persian, Indian and Syriac texts into Arabic, and produced original works in mathematics, astronomy, medicine and philosophy. It was destroyed during the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258. Who is considered the most influential Muslim scientist? This is debated, but three figures are most frequently cited: al-Khwarizmi for his foundational contributions to mathematics, Ibn al-Haytham for his pioneering work in optics and the scientific method, and Ibn Sina for his encyclopaedic contributions to medicine. Each fundamentally shaped their respective fields for centuries. Did Muslim women contribute to science? Historical records document Muslim women's involvement in medical practice, pharmacology and education, though the surviving written record is predominantly authored by men. Zainab bint Ishaq (10th century) was noted for her medical knowledge, and Sutayda al-Mahamali (d. 987 CE) was a renowned mathematician in Baghdad. The underrepresentation of women in the historical record reflects social structures of the period rather than any theological prohibition on women's intellectual activity. How were these scientific works transmitted to Europe? Primarily through translation movements centred in Toledo (Spain), Sicily and the Crusader states. In the 12th and 13th centuries, scholars such as Gerard of Cremona and Michael Scot translated hundreds of Arabic scientific and philosophical texts into Latin, making them available to European scholars. These translations were the primary channel through which Europe recovered and advanced upon Greek science. Are there good books on this topic for general readers? Three widely recommended works are: "The House of Wisdom" by Jim al-Khalili (2010), which provides an accessible overview of Islamic contributions to science; "Science and Civilisation in Islam" by Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1968), which places Islamic science within its philosophical and theological context; and "Pathfinders: The Golden Age of Arabic Science" by Jim al-Khalili (2012), which profiles individual scientists and their achievements. Conclusion The scientific contributions of Islamic civilisation represent one of the most significant - and most overlooked - chapters in the history of human knowledge. From the invention of algebra to the establishment of the experimental scientific method, from the most widely used medical encyclopaedia in history to the most accurate pre-modern maps, the achievements of scholars working within Islamic civilisation fundamentally shaped the world we inhabit today. These contributions were not incidental to Islam. They were directly encouraged by a theological framework that treats the natural world as a book of divine signs to be read through observation and reason, that classifies the pursuit of knowledge as a religious obligation, and that honours the scholar as an inheritor of the Prophets. The institutional infrastructure of Islamic civilisation - its madrasas, libraries, hospitals and observatories - provided the material conditions in which this theology could be translated into practice. Understanding this history matters today for multiple reasons. For Muslims, it offers a powerful counter-narrative to the claim that Islam and science are inherently in tension - a claim contradicted by over five centuries of sustained scientific achievement. For non-Muslims, it corrects a significant gap in the standard historical narrative and illuminates the deeply interconnected, cross-civilisational nature of scientific progress. And for all who care about the future of human knowledge, it serves as a reminder that scientific flourishing depends not on any single culture or faith, but on the creation of conditions - institutional support, intellectual freedom, cross-cultural exchange, and a deep conviction that understanding the world is a worthy pursuit - that Islamic civilisation, at its height, exemplified. References: Quran (Sahih International translation). Sahih Muslim. Ibn Majah. Al-Tirmidhi. Al-Ghazali, "Ihya Ulum al-Din." Ibn Rushd, "Fasl al-Maqal." Ibn Khaldun, "Muqaddimah." Al-Khalili, Jim, "The House of Wisdom" (Penguin, 2010). Al-Khalili, Jim, "Pathfinders" (Penguin, 2012). Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, "Science and Civilisation in Islam" (Harvard University Press, 1968). Lindberg, David, "The Beginnings of Western Science" (University of Chicago Press, 2007). Sarton, George, "Introduction to the History of Science" (Carnegie Institution, 1927–1948).