Who was the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh)? Tags: Prophet Muhammad, biography, sirah, messenger, seal of the prophets, Makkah, Madinah, revelation, sunnah, Islam In a Nutshell: Muhammad ibn Abdullah (pbuh), born in Makkah around 570 CE and died in Madinah in 632 CE, is the final prophet and messenger of God in Islamic belief. Muslims regard him as the Seal of the Prophets (Khatam al-Nabiyyin), the last in a chain of messengers stretching from Adam through Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus (peace be upon them all), each of whom was sent to call humanity to the worship of the one God. At the age of forty, Muhammad (pbuh) received the first revelation of the Quran through the Angel Jibril (Gabriel) while meditating in the Cave of Hira near Makkah. Over the following twenty-three years, he received the complete Quran, established a community of believers, endured persecution and exile, led the nascent Muslim state in Madinah, and unified the Arabian Peninsula under the banner of Islam. He died having transformed the religious, political, and social landscape of Arabia and having set in motion a civilisational movement that would extend across three continents within a century of his death. For Muslims, he is not merely a historical figure but the living model (uswah hasanah) of how a human being should relate to God, to other people, and to oneself. This article examines his life, character, and legacy through the primary sources of Islamic history. Introduction Muhammad (pbuh) is, by any historical measure, one of the most influential human beings who has ever lived. Michael Hart, in "The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History" (1978), placed him first, noting that he was "the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the religious and secular levels." For nearly two billion Muslims, he is far more than a historical figure: he is the beloved messenger of God (habib Allah), the most complete example of human conduct, and the person whose words, actions, and approvals (collectively known as the Sunnah) constitute the second source of Islamic law after the Quran. Yet for many non-Muslims, Muhammad (pbuh) remains poorly understood. He is sometimes caricatured as a warlord, a polygamist, or a political opportunist, characterisations that collapse the complexity of his life into hostile simplifications. He is sometimes idealised to the point of hagiography, which does not serve the historical record either. This article seeks to present his life as the Islamic tradition understands it, drawing on the Quran, the authenticated hadith literature, and the earliest biographical sources (sirah), while engaging honestly with the questions that both Muslims and non-Muslims most frequently ask. Key Terms Sirah (Arabic: سيرة) refers to the biographical tradition of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). The earliest surviving sirah is that of Ibn Ishaq (d. 767 CE), preserved in the recension of Ibn Hisham (d. 833 CE). Later biographical works include those of Ibn Sa'd, al-Tabari, and Ibn Kathir. Sunnah (Arabic: سنة) refers to the Prophet's normative practice: his words, actions, and tacit approvals, recorded in the hadith literature. The Sunnah is the second source of Islamic law after the Quran and provides the detailed guidance by which the Quran's general principles are applied to daily life. Khatam al-Nabiyyin (Arabic: خاتم النبيين) means "Seal of the Prophets" and is the Quranic title given to Muhammad (pbuh) (Quran 33:40). It indicates that he is the final prophet in the chain of divine messengers, and that no new prophet will come after him. Hijrah (Arabic: هجرة) means "migration" and refers to the Prophet's emigration from Makkah to Madinah in 622 CE. The Hijrah marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar and the transition from a persecuted religious community to an organised political entity. Isra' wa Mi'raj (Arabic: الإسراء والمعراج) refers to the Night Journey and Ascension, in which the Prophet (pbuh) was transported from Makkah to Jerusalem (al-Isra') and then ascended through the heavens (al-Mi'raj), where the five daily prayers were prescribed. The event is described in the Quran (17:1) and in detail in the hadith literature. Uswah Hasanah (Arabic: أسوة حسنة) means "excellent example" or "beautiful model" and is the Quranic description of the Prophet (pbuh) (Quran 33:21). It establishes his conduct as the normative standard for Muslim behaviour. Evidences Quranic Verses "Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but he is the Messenger of Allah and the Seal of the Prophets." (Quran 33:40) "There has certainly been for you in the Messenger of Allah an excellent example for anyone whose hope is in Allah and the Last Day and who remembers Allah often." (Quran 33:21) "And We have not sent you, O Muhammad, except as a mercy to the worlds." (Quran 21:107) "And indeed, you are of a great moral character." (Quran 68:4) "It is He who sent among the unlettered a Messenger from themselves, reciting to them His verses and purifying them and teaching them the Book and wisdom, although they had been before in clear error." (Quran 62:2) "Say: I am only a man like you, to whom has been revealed that your god is one God." (Quran 18:110) "Exalted is He who took His servant by night from al-Masjid al-Haram to al-Masjid al-Aqsa, whose surroundings We have blessed, to show him of Our signs." (Quran 17:1) Hadiths Aisha (ra) was asked about the character of the Prophet (pbuh). She replied: "His character was the Quran." (Sahih Muslim) This concise statement indicates that the Prophet embodied the Quran's teachings in his daily conduct. Anas ibn Malik (ra), who served the Prophet (pbuh) for ten years, said: "The Messenger of Allah was the best of people in character. He never said 'uff' (an expression of annoyance) to me, and he never said about something I had done, 'Why did you do it?' or about something I had not done, 'Why didn't you do it?'" (Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim) The Prophet (pbuh) said: "I was sent to perfect good character." (Musnad Ahmad and al-Bayhaqi) The Prophet (pbuh) said: "The strong man is not the one who can wrestle, but the strong man is the one who controls himself when he is angry." (Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim) The Prophet (pbuh) said: "None of you truly believes until he loves for his brother what he loves for himself." (Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim) The Prophet (pbuh) said: "Be mindful of Allah and you will find Him before you. Know Allah in ease and He will know you in hardship." (Musnad Ahmad) Companions' Opinions Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (ra), the Prophet's closest companion and the first caliph, said upon the Prophet's death: "Whoever worshipped Muhammad, let him know that Muhammad has died. But whoever worshipped Allah, let him know that Allah lives and never dies." This statement, delivered at a moment of profound communal grief, encapsulates the Islamic understanding of the Prophet's status: he was the greatest of human beings, but he was human, not divine. Khadijah bint Khuwaylid (ra), the Prophet's first wife and the first person to accept Islam, reassured him after the first revelation: "Never! By Allah, Allah will never disgrace you. You keep good relations with your kinsfolk, help the poor and destitute, serve your guests generously, and assist the deserving calamity-afflicted ones." (Sahih al-Bukhari) Her testimony to his pre-prophetic character is significant because it comes from the person who knew him most intimately. Ali ibn Abi Talib (ra), the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law, described his physical appearance and manner in detail: "He was neither excessively tall nor short. His hair was neither completely curly nor completely straight. He had a large head and a full beard. He walked with such energy as though he were descending a slope. I have never seen anyone like him, before or after him." (Sunan al-Tirmidhi) Traditional Scholars' Quotes Al-Qadi Iyad (12th century): In "al-Shifa bi-Ta'rif Huquq al-Mustafa" (Healing by the Recognition of the Rights of the Chosen One), al-Qadi Iyad produced the most celebrated work on the Prophet's character, status, and rights. He documented the Prophet's physical attributes, moral qualities, miracles, and the Muslim's obligations of love and respect towards him. Ibn Kathir (14th century): In "al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah" (The Beginning and the End), Ibn Kathir produced one of the most comprehensive historical accounts of the Prophet's life, drawing on the hadith and sirah literature. Al-Ghazali (11th to 12th century): Throughout "Ihya Ulum al-Din," al-Ghazali presented the Prophet as the supreme model of every virtue: patience, generosity, courage, humility, forgiveness, and devotion to God. He argued that following the Sunnah is not mere legalism but the internalisation of the Prophet's character. Analysis: The Life of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) The life of Muhammad (pbuh) divides naturally into three periods: the pre-prophetic years (570 to 610 CE), the Makkan period (610 to 622 CE), and the Madinan period (622 to 632 CE). Each reveals different dimensions of his character and mission. Muhammad (pbuh) was born into the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe in Makkah, the custodians of the Ka'bah. His father Abdullah died before his birth, and his mother Aminah died when he was six, leaving him an orphan (a fact the Quran itself references: "Did He not find you an orphan and give you shelter?" Quran 93:6). He was raised first by his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib and then by his uncle Abu Talib. He grew up without formal education and was unable to read or write, a detail of immense significance for the later claim that the Quran could not have been his own composition. He was known in Makkah as al-Amin (the Trustworthy) and al-Sadiq (the Truthful), titles bestowed by his community before his prophethood. He married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid (ra), a successful businesswoman fifteen years his senior, when he was twenty-five. Their marriage lasted twenty-five years until her death, and throughout that period he took no other wife. At the age of forty, while meditating in the Cave of Hira on Mount Nur near Makkah, Muhammad (pbuh) received the first revelation through the Angel Jibril. The experience was overwhelming: the angel commanded him to "Read!" (Iqra'), and the first five verses of Surah al-Alaq (chapter 96) were revealed. He returned to Khadijah trembling, and she became the first person to accept Islam. Over the following three years, the message was conveyed privately to close family and friends. When the public call began, the response from the Quraysh leadership was hostile. The new religion challenged the polytheistic system upon which Makkah's economy, social hierarchy, and political authority were built. The Prophet and his followers endured escalating persecution: verbal abuse, economic boycott, physical violence, and, for some converts (particularly those without tribal protection), torture. The Makkan period lasted approximately thirteen years and is characterised by patient endurance, the gradual growth of the Muslim community, and the Prophet's unwavering commitment to his message despite every form of opposition. Two events of particular significance occurred during this period. The first was the migration of a group of Muslims to Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia), where the Christian king offered them protection, demonstrating the early Muslim community's capacity for interfaith engagement. The second was the Isra' wa Mi'raj, the Night Journey and Ascension, in which the Prophet was transported to Jerusalem and then to the heavens, receiving the prescription of the five daily prayers. The event is a defining moment in Islamic spirituality, affirming the Prophet's unique closeness to God. In 622 CE, facing an assassination plot by the Quraysh, the Prophet (pbuh) emigrated to Yathrib (renamed Madinah al-Munawwarah, "the Radiant City") at the invitation of its inhabitants, who had pledged their allegiance to him. The Hijrah marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar and the transition of the Muslim community from a persecuted minority to an organised polity. In Madinah, the Prophet (pbuh) served simultaneously as religious leader, head of state, judge, and military commander. He drafted the Constitution of Madinah (Sahifat al-Madinah), a document that established the rights and obligations of the Muslim, Jewish, and pagan communities within the city, and is regarded by many historians as one of the earliest written constitutions in human history. The Madinan period (622 to 632 CE) included several military engagements, the most significant being the battles of Badr (624 CE), Uhud (625 CE), and the Trench (627 CE), as well as the peaceful conquest of Makkah (630 CE). The Prophet's conduct in warfare was governed by explicit ethical principles: he prohibited the killing of non-combatants, the destruction of crops and livestock, and the use of excessive force. When he entered Makkah at the head of ten thousand men, having been driven from the city eight years earlier, he declared a general amnesty. The Quraysh, who had persecuted, tortured, and killed his followers, were told: "Go, for you are free." This act of forgiveness, at the moment of total military victory, is one of the most celebrated events in Islamic history and is regarded as the definitive expression of the Prophet's character. The Prophet (pbuh) died on 12 Rabi' al-Awwal 11 AH (8 June 632 CE) in Madinah, in the arms of his wife Aisha (ra). He left behind no material wealth: his shield was pawned to a Jewish merchant for a debt of barley at the time of his death. He left behind a community of believers that would, within a generation, extend from North Africa to Central Asia, and a legacy of moral, spiritual, and legal guidance that continues to shape the lives of nearly two billion people. His character, as attested by the people who knew him best, combined qualities that are rarely found together in a single person: he was gentle but courageous, humble but authoritative, ascetic but engaged with the world, forgiving but firm on matters of principle. He mended his own shoes, milked his own goats, and participated in household chores. He played with children, wept openly at the death of his son, joked with his companions, and raced his wife Aisha on foot. He was, in the Quranic description, "a mercy to the worlds" (21:107), and the Islamic tradition holds that understanding his life is the key to understanding Islam itself. 5 Misconceptions about the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) "Muhammad founded a new religion for political power." The Makkan period refutes this characterisation decisively. For thirteen years the Prophet (pbuh) endured persecution, economic boycott, the death of his wife and uncle, and the offer of wealth, power, and authority by the Quraysh in exchange for abandoning his message. He refused every offer. A person seeking political power does not spend thirteen years as a persecuted outcast when a comfortable compromise is available. "Muhammad was a warlord who spread Islam by the sword." The Prophet (pbuh) engaged in military action only after thirteen years of non-violent endurance in Makkah and only in contexts of defence against aggression or the enforcement of violated treaties. The total number of casualties across all the battles of the Prophet's lifetime (on both sides combined) is estimated by historians at fewer than fifteen hundred, a figure that is remarkably low for a twenty-three-year period of transformative social change. The Quran explicitly states: "There is no compulsion in religion" (2:256), and the Prophet's treatment of conquered peoples (as at the conquest of Makkah) was characterised by amnesty and the protection of rights. "Muhammad married Aisha when she was very young, which is indefensible." The age of Aisha (ra) at the time of her marriage is reported differently in different sources. The most commonly cited narration (in Sahih al-Bukhari) gives her age as six at the time of the marriage contract and nine at consummation. Some modern historians and scholars, drawing on alternative narrations and historical cross-referencing, have argued for an older age. The topic has been addressed extensively by contemporary Muslim scholars including Jonathan Brown ("Misquoting Muhammad") and Yaqeen Institute researchers, who have contextualised the marriage within seventh-century Arabian norms (where marriages at young ages were universal across cultures) and within the broader assessment of the Prophet's character by the people who knew him. Aisha (ra) herself became one of the most authoritative scholars of Islam, narrating over two thousand hadiths, and she consistently spoke of the Prophet with admiration and affection. "Muhammad had many wives because he was lustful." The Prophet (pbuh) was monogamously married to Khadijah (ra) for twenty-five years, from the age of twenty-five until her death when he was fifty. The multiple marriages that followed occurred in the last ten years of his life and were motivated by a combination of political alliance, the protection of widows and divorcees, and the strengthening of community bonds. Several of his later wives were elderly widows. The characterisation of his marriages as expressions of lust is contradicted by the pattern of his marital life and by the testimony of his wives themselves. "Muhammad is worshipped by Muslims." Islam explicitly and emphatically prohibits the worship of any being other than God. The Prophet (pbuh) himself said: "Do not exaggerate in praising me as the Christians exaggerated in praising the son of Maryam. I am only a servant, so say: the servant of Allah and His Messenger" (Sahih al-Bukhari). Abu Bakr's statement at the Prophet's death, "Whoever worshipped Muhammad, let him know that Muhammad has died; but whoever worshipped Allah, let him know that Allah lives and never dies," captures the Islamic position with perfect clarity. 5 Objections Addressed Regarding the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) "How can a man who participated in warfare be considered a moral exemplar?" The Islamic tradition does not regard pacifism as a moral absolute. The Quran permits fighting in self-defence and against oppression while imposing strict ethical constraints on the conduct of warfare. The Prophet's military engagements were defensive responses to aggression or treaty violations, and his rules of engagement (no killing of non-combatants, no destruction of property, no mutilation, no forced conversion) represented a significant ethical advance over the warfare of his time. Moral leadership does not require the avoidance of all conflict; it requires the principled and restrained conduct of conflict when it becomes unavoidable. "The Prophet's marriages to multiple women are problematic by modern standards." The marriages must be understood within the social context of seventh-century Arabia, where polygamy was unrestricted and where women without male protectors faced severe social and economic vulnerability. The Prophet's marriages provided protection, alliance, and social integration for women who would otherwise have been marginalised. The Quranic restriction of polygamy to four wives (Quran 4:3), with the condition of equal treatment, was itself a limitation on the pre-existing practice. The Prophet's own marriages were granted a specific dispensation that is not available to other Muslims. "If Muhammad was illiterate, how do we know the Quran was not composed by someone else and attributed to him?" The Quran's inimitability (i'jaz) is the primary response: no human being, literate or illiterate, has produced a comparable text. Additionally, the Prophet's own speech (preserved in the hadith) is stylistically entirely different from the Quran, suggesting two different sources. The companions who witnessed the process of revelation testified to the visible physical effects it had on the Prophet, and the twenty-three-year pattern of revelation (with verses addressing specific events in real time) is inconsistent with a pre-composed text. "The Prophet's treatment of the Banu Qurayza tribe after the Battle of the Trench was excessive." The Banu Qurayza, a Jewish tribe in Madinah bound by treaty to the Muslim community, broke their treaty and allied with the Quraysh during the Battle of the Trench, threatening the survival of Madinah from within during a siege. After the siege was lifted, the Banu Qurayza surrendered and agreed to accept the judgement of Sa'd ibn Mu'adh (ra), their former ally, who applied the ruling of the Torah (Deuteronomy 20:12 to 14) for treachery in wartime. The episode is one of the most discussed in the sirah, and Muslim scholars have addressed it in detail, noting the context of wartime treachery, the application of the tribe's own legal framework, and the serious threat the betrayal posed to the entire community. "Why should the example of a seventh-century Arabian be relevant to the twenty-first century?" The Islamic answer is that the Prophet (pbuh) was sent as a "mercy to the worlds" (Quran 21:107), and that his moral example transcends time and place. The principles he embodied, honesty, compassion, justice, forgiveness, humility, courage, and devotion to God, are not culturally contingent. The specific applications of these principles may require contextual adaptation (which the Islamic legal tradition accommodates through ijtihad), but the principles themselves are understood as universal and permanent. FAQs: Who Was the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh)? "Is Muhammad mentioned in the Bible?" Muslims believe that several Biblical passages prophesy the coming of Muhammad (pbuh), including Deuteronomy 18:18 ("I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their brothers") and the Gospel of John's references to the "Paraclete" or "Comforter." Christian scholars generally interpret these passages differently. The Quran itself states that Jesus foretold a messenger "whose name is Ahmad" (Quran 61:6), which Muslims understand as a reference to Muhammad (Ahmad being a variant of Muhammad, both meaning "praised"). "Why do Muslims say 'peace be upon him' after the Prophet's name?" The Quran instructs: "Indeed, Allah confers blessing upon the Prophet, and His angels ask Him to do so. O you who believe, ask Allah to confer blessing upon him and ask Allah to grant him peace" (Quran 33:56). Saying "sallallahu alayhi wa sallam" (may Allah's blessings and peace be upon him), often abbreviated as (pbuh), is an act of obedience to this Quranic command and an expression of love and respect. "Did Muhammad perform miracles?" The primary miracle attributed to the Prophet is the Quran itself, which is considered a continuing, verifiable miracle. The hadith literature also records other miracles, including the splitting of the moon (referenced in Quran 54:1), the flowing of water from his hands, and the feeding of large numbers from small quantities of food. These are accepted by Muslim scholars on the basis of the hadith evidence, though the emphasis of the tradition is on the Quran as the lasting miracle. "How should non-Muslims refer to Muhammad?" Respectfully, as one would refer to any major religious figure. Using his name with a respectful title ("the Prophet Muhammad" or "Muhammad, peace be upon him") is appreciated by Muslims, though non-Muslims are not expected to use the full Islamic formula. What is important is that references be accurate and respectful rather than dismissive or mocking. "Where is the Prophet buried?" The Prophet (pbuh) is buried in Madinah, in the chamber that was formerly the room of his wife Aisha (ra), adjacent to his mosque (al-Masjid al-Nabawi). His grave is visited by millions of Muslims each year, though the visit (ziyarah) is an act of respect and supplication, not of worship. Conclusion The life of Muhammad (pbuh) is the lens through which nearly two billion people understand their relationship with God, with one another, and with the world. He was an orphan who became the most influential human being in history. He was a man of profound spiritual depth who also governed a state, led an army, negotiated treaties, and adjudicated disputes. He was gentle enough to weep at the death of a child and firm enough to stand against the combined opposition of the most powerful tribe in Arabia. He was, in the Quranic description, "of a great moral character" (68:4), and his life, studied in detail through the sirah and hadith literature, reveals a person of extraordinary consistency: the private man and the public leader, the worshipper and the statesman, the husband and the prophet were all of a piece. For Muslims, knowing the Prophet is not an optional supplement to their faith but its very substance. The Quran provides the divine guidance; the Prophet provides the human model of what it looks like to live that guidance. To understand Islam, one must understand the Quran. To understand how the Quran is lived, one must understand the man to whom it was revealed. References: Sahih al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim, Sunan al-Tirmidhi, Musnad Ahmad. Ibn Hisham, "al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah." Ibn Kathir, "al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah." Al-Qadi Iyad, "al-Shifa." Martin Lings, "Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources" (1983). Jonathan Brown, "Misquoting Muhammad" (2014). Quran translations referenced from Sahih International.